A student researches using online sources .

Citing Online Sources

BySarah Jensen

Online sources used to be considered untrustworthy; and for a long time, there was good reason for that—the most reliable sources were found in books and journals that only came in print. But times have changed, and now some of the most current and reliable information can be found online, thanks to the web’s ready availability and ubiquity across industries. Because of the pervasive nature of online sources, students need to know how to cite online sources properly.

The goal of citing a source is for others to be able to find the cited information. Someone viewing the source should be able to find and see exactly what the person who consulted the source saw. Source citations may not always align perfectly with the expectations and examples given in style guides, but the important thing is to provide enough information to meet this goal.

While there are many different ways to cite sources based on different style guides, the most common citation styles that students use are the Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), and Chicago styles, so we will explore these styles more fully. Citations can be both messy and complicated, and we can’t cover the correct way to cite every possible type of source in this post, but we will outline several types of online sources and the basic format for MLA, APA, and Chicago styles.

How to Cite Online Sources

Elements of an Online Source Citation

Each citation style requires certain elements in a certain order and a certain format. Generally, a citation will include elements such as the title, author, and date of the work, along with other particulars. Online sources may need a retrieval date or a “last updated” date, along with a URL or DOI. The rule of thumb is to include as much information as possible for each element when available and leave out information that isn’t available.

Common elements of online source citations:

  • Author
  • Title
  • Publishing Information
  • Page numbers or location identifiers
  • URL or DOI

Most of these elements are fairly straightforward; challenges usually arise in identifying the appropriate publishing information to include. The publishing information may comprise the date of publication, publisher, issue, volume, or edition numbers, contributors to the work other than the author(s), and location of publication (in the case of online sources, this includes the URL or DOI). Confusion may come when one or more of these elements are missing or redundant.

In-Text Citations and Notes for Online Sources

Different style guides use different formats for citations. MLA format uses a form of in-text citations that usually includes the author and the page number, paired with a works cited list at the end of the work. If there is no author, use the title of the source instead of the author. For online sources without page numbers, the page number element is omitted—the in-text citation includes only the author or title, which leads the reader to the full citation in the works cited list.

Chicago’s default citation style uses notes. These notes are the most thorough of any of the in-text citation styles, providing a full source citation in either a footnote or endnote. Notes may also contain a combination of additional information, commentary, and a corresponding entry in a bibliography; we will outline the format for a full citation later on.

Author-date style in-text citations are the standard format for APA citations and an alternative format for Chicago citations. In both styles, these citations are paired with a reference list at the end of the work. Online sources are cited the same way as traditional sources in in-text citations; if there is no publishing date available for the source, use n.d. within the parenthetical citation. As with MLA style, use the title of the source instead of the author if an online source has no author. When citing a specific portion of the source material, a locator of some kind is also used. This may be a page number (if the source you are using has static page numbers, such as those in an online journal), a chapter (as in an online book), or a paragraph number.

Bibliographies, Works Cited Lists, and Reference Lists

Let’s look more closely at the citation format expected by each style guide.

MLA

MLA citations use the concept of a container, or a larger body, that the source may be a part of. This could be a collection of short stories, a journal of articles, a blog with many posts, a website with many articles, and so on. The greater whole is the container, and the information regarding the source and its container is presented in this format:

  • Author. “Title.” Title of Container, Contributor, version, number, Publisher, publication date, URL or DOI.

APA

APA uses a reference list at the end of a work. The pattern for citing an online source is the same as that for citing a print source, with the elements adapted as closely as possible to fit the online format.

The correct citation format depends somewhat on the type of source being cited. With online sources that may be missing some of the elements described, these elements are omitted, and the source just includes as much information as possible. For example, when publication dates are not available, a retrieval date can be included instead.

We will explore more examples later on, but here are the outlines for two major categories:

  • Online journal, magazine, newspaper article, or blog post:
  • Author. (Publication date). Title of work. Title of Publication, volume(issue), page numbers. URL or DOI
  • Webpage or online book:
  • Author. (Publication date). Title of work. Publisher. URL or DOI

Chicago

Similar to APA, the format for a citation in Chicago style is dependent on the type of source. In the outlines below, the first is for standalone works like e-books, and the second is for smaller works within a greater whole, such as online articles that are part of a journal, newspaper, magazine, or blog.

As we’ve discussed, there are two different systems of citing sources according to Chicago guidelines: notes and bibliography style, and author-date style. For author-date style, a corresponding reference list titled “References” or “Works Cited” is included.

The examples going forward will show a note with a corresponding bibliography entry; students will be able to adapt the given bibliography examples to a reference list entry by simply moving the year (and only the year) of publication directly after the author’s name(s), leaving every other element of the citation unchanged.

  • Note:
  •               1. Author, Title (Publisher, year of publication), page numbers, URL.
  •               2. Author, “Title,” Title of Greater Whole volume number, issue number (year of publication): page numbers. URL or DOI.
  • Bibliography entry:
  • Author. Title. Publisher, year of publication. URL.
  • Author. “Title.” Title of Greater Whole volume number, issue number (year of publication): page numbers. URL or DOI.
  • Reference list entry:
  • Author. Year of Publication. Title. Publisher. URL.
  • Author. Year of Publication. “Title.” Title of Greater Whole volume number, issue number: page numbers. URL or DOI.

Types of Online Sources

Students may find several different kinds of sources online, and often knowing what kind of source you’re dealing with is important before you can cite it properly. The following are common types of sources students may want to use and thus need to cite.

Online Versions of Books or E-Books

Online versions of books, or e-books, are increasingly common, popular, and accessible. This makes them a good option as a source, because students can often find an online version of a book that they wouldn’t be able to access a hard copy of.

Examples:

Online Versions of Periodicals

Many periodicals that have traditionally appeared in print now have online versions as well. Most magazines, journals, and newspapers can now be accessed online as well as in print. When students consult the online version, they should be sure to cite that version.

Examples:

  • MLA
  • Holmes, Wayne, Ilkka Tuomi. “State of the Art and Practice in AI in Education.” European Journal of Education, vol. 57, no. 4, 2022, pp. 542–570. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12533.
  • APA
  • Holmes, W., & Tuomi, I. (2022). State of the art and practice in AI in education. European Journal of Education, 57(4), 542–570. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12533
  • Chicago
  • Note:
  •               1. Wayne Holmes and Ilkka Tuomi, “State of the Art and Practice in AI in Education.” European Journal of Education 57, no. 4 (2022): 542–570, https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12533.
  • Bibliography entry:
  • Holmes, W. and Ilkka Tuomi. “State of the Art and Practice in AI in Education.” European Journal of Education 57, no. 4 (2022): 542–570. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12533.

Online News Outlets

Most radio and television news outlets have websites where they post news stories and updates. These outlets are distinct from online newspapers because they do not have associated print versions of their stories.

Examples:

Blogs

Blogs vary greatly in their credibility, professionalism, and substance. When using a blog as a source, finding one that is trustworthy is just as important as citing it correctly.

Examples:

Web Pages on Websites

The procedure for citing a single web page within a website varies from style to style. Some citation styles suggest that creating full citations for web pages is not always necessary, and a description of the page and its association with the greater website is often sufficient. There may be times, however, when citing a web page is necessary. Students will need to be familiar with the direction of the style guide they are following and use their discretion.

Examples:

Online Reference Works

Online reference works may include Wikipedia or other online encyclopedias, online dictionaries, and other similar works. Sometimes these works will have print versions, but sometimes they will not. MLA treats Wikipedia entries the same as any other reference works, while APA has a distinct style for Wikipedia entries, and Chicago treats them essentially the same but leaves “Wikipedia” in roman type rather than italics.

Examples:

Online Reports, Press Releases, and Other Online Materials

Government agencies and businesses will often publish reports, brochures, codes of ethics, press releases, and other materials online. These types of sources may be treated similarly, or they might have different formats, depending on the style guide being used. Students should check their style guides for more examples and specifics.

Examples:

Tips and Resources for Proper Online Source Citations

Here are a few additional best practices and tips to remember when citing an online source.

  1. While not all styles or source types require access dates, it’s a good idea to keep track of the date you accessed a given source.
  2. Always try to use the most stable version of a URL that you can find. This may be a DOI, permalink, shortened URL, or archived version. Some websites like Wikipedia store archived versions; otherwise, an internet archive such as the Wayback Machine is a good option.
  3. When possible, keep downloaded copies of sources. Opt for versions of sources that are less likely to change, such as a scanned version of a book or a PDF as opposed to text on a web page.
  4. Take note of how your style formats URLs. For example, in MLA style, URLs do not include the initial http(s)//:, except in the case of DOIs. In APA style, a period does not follow the URL.
  5. As always, try to find the most reliable sources possible.

While there are many more types of sources and variations that are not covered in this post, hopefully the examples and outlines provided will give students a starting place. There are also many helpful online resources to help with citing online sources—sites such as CMOS online, the APA website, the MLA website, and the OWL at Purdue have extensive examples and answers to frequently asked questions to help students succeed in their research. And if you want more helpful information about online learning, read our articles on avoiding plagiarism and using AI without plagiarizing; for additional help with research, take a look at our articles on research tools and Boolean searches.

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